This research aligns with studies that investigate the role of indigenous knowledge in the teaching and learning of mathematics in sub-Saharan African countries. It examines the impact of indigenous knowledge on foundational learning through the lens of culturally based game learning. Specifically, the study focuses on two traditional board games, Igisoro and Gebeta, found in Rwanda and Ethiopia, respectively. Although highlighted in these national contexts, these games are not unique to the two countries; variants of them are widely found across sub-Saharan Africa. An ethnographic research approach was adopted, enabling the use of multiple data collection methods, including observations, interviews, field notes, document analysis, and video recordings. The findings indicate that culturally embedded games can foster key foundational learning competencies such as numeracy, literacy, social and emotional skills, critical thinking, and digital literacy. These results demonstrate the potential of indigenous knowledge to support foundational learning in a cost-effective manner, given that such games are readily accessible within local sociocultural contexts across the region. However, existing research also points to a lack of deliberate and systematic efforts to integrate culturally based game learning into formal school systems.
Contribution
The study demonstrates the use of cultural artefacts, like the two traditional board games, Igisoro from Rwanda and Gebeta from Ethiopia, as pedagogically rich learning resources that support multiple foundational learning competencies.
Foundational learninggame-based learningindigenous knowledgeboard gamestraditional knowledgeculturally game-based learningFunding information This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.Introduction
The Global Coalition for Foundational Learning (GCFL) defined foundational learning (FL) as ‘basic literacy, numeracy, and transferable skills such as socio-emotional skills that provide the fundamental building blocks for all other learning, knowledge, and higher-order skills’ (GCFL, 2023). According to the World Bank and UNESCO’s Institute of Statistics, learning poverty is ‘a concept that means being unable to read and understand a simple text by age 10’ and ‘nearly six out of ten children globally are estimated to be affected by learning poverty’ (GCFL, 2022; UNESCO, 2023; World Bank, 2023). A billion children lost a year of school during the COVID pandemic, and even five years later, the learning crisis has not yet been addressed meaningfully. The global FL coalition ‘has been established, inviting governments and stakeholders to endorse the Commitment to Action on FL as a first step to accelerate the agenda on FL’ (UNICEF, 2023). The coalition advocates for overcoming the learning loss after the outbreak of COVID-19. In Africa, especially in sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, the learning crisis is severe. As the Champion of Foundational Learning and President of the Republic of Zambia, Mr Hakainde Hichilema, stated in a 2024 meeting:
By 2050, at least one-third of all young people aged 15 to 24 years old will be born in Africa. At present, four in five children are unable to read and understand simple text by the age of ten. … Collectively, we must set clear milestones beyond the 2024 year of education and ensure that no child in Africa is left behind. (ADEA, 2024)
This statement highlights the alarming gap in FL, with 80% of 10-year-old children in Africa affected by low literacy levels. This challenge is largely attributed to the fact that the average expenditure per child per year is approximately $260.00, compared to a global average of $8000.00 The highest-spending African countries are spending $900.00 per year, a tenth of the global average. The lowest-spending country is spending $16.00 per child per year. This is at the heart of the challenge (ADEA, 2024). Hence, high investment in children is positively correlated with improving FL. One significant approach to strengthening learning opportunities for children in SSA countries is the integration of indigenous knowledge (IK). However, IK remains insufficiently incorporated into the formal education system, particularly in mathematics, creating a cultural and pedagogical gap that affects the learning process overall (Da Silva et al., 2023). Research in mathematics education further shows that connecting mathematical concepts to learners’ cultural experiences and indigenous practices can enhance understanding, engagement, and performance. Kassaye (2024) emphasises the importance of IK or traditional knowledge in educating the youth in their own culture, and its role in transmitting values is essential in understanding and experiencing the fullness of life (p. 1). Creating a culturally responsive education system is fundamental to boosting FL learning as well (Rosa & Orey, 2011; Tesfamicael & Farsani, 2024). Therefore, in this article, reflections on how IK can enhance FL in SSA countries are provided using existing literature, examples, experiences, and previously conducted studies. I do this by focusing on cultural game-based learning (CGBL) by taking the special cases of Igisoro in Rwanda and Gebeta in Ethiopia. Hence, the research question under consideration is: How can Igisoro and Gebeta foster FL in the early ages of children in the teaching and learning of mathematics in Rwanda and Ethiopia? To answer this question, I first provide the theoretical frameworks that help us connect FL and IK, especially with CGBL.
Theoretical framework
Sociocultural theory conceptualises learning as culturally and socially mediated (Vygotsky, 1978), while situated learning frames it as embedded in everyday cultural practices (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT), as an extension of sociocultural theory, views learning as mediated by tools within historical and cultural contexts (Engestrom, 1987), decolonial and postcolonial theories challenge the dominance of Western epistemologies and advocate for epistemic justice and the recognition of marginalised knowledge systems (Sund & Pashby, 2020), and ethnomathematics asserts that mathematical thinking is culturally situated (D’Ambrosio, 1985). Together, these grand theories provide a broader epistemological grounding for understanding knowledge and skills generated within communities and societies. Regardless of the grand theory adopted, IK can be embedded within any of these perspectives, allowing its role to be examined from multiple angles. In this work, the focus is on IK; more specifically, cultural games are examined as a subset of IK. Accordingly, IK is first presented, followed by a discussion on the conceptualisation of learning through games in order to strengthen the pedagogical significance of cultural games.
Indigenous knowledge
Asking AI1 on 01 January 2025 what IK is, I get the following definition:
IK refers to the understanding, skills, and philosophies developed by Indigenous peoples over generations through their experiences with the environment, culture, and social structures. This body of knowledge encompasses a wide range of areas, including agriculture, medicine, ecology, and spirituality, and is often transmitted orally through stories, rituals, and practices. (n.p.)
This definition aligns with the working definitions of Petzold et al. (2020) in their review article in connection to climate change:
Indigenous knowledge refers to the understandings, skills and philosophies of Indigenous peoples, developed through long and multigenerational histories of interactions with the natural world and adapting to highly variable and changing ecological and social conditions including colonisation and globalisation. (p. 2)
Key characteristics of indigenous knowledge include: Cultural Context, Holistic Understanding, Sustainable Practices, Adaptation and Resilience, Local Relevance, and Oral Tradition (Da Silva et al., 2023). For many indigenous peoples, IK informs decision-making about fundamental aspects of life, from day-to-day activities to longer-term actions. One can see that IK is about societies’ awareness of their existence, consciousness, and knowledge production in connection to both local and global contexts (Semali & Kincheloe, 1999). It is often used synonymously with ‘local knowledge’ or ‘ethnoscience’ (Semali & Kincheloe, 1999), or funds of knowledge (Moll et al., 2009), indicating knowledge specific to a culture or community. Kassaye (2024, p. 2) provided different aspects of knowledge: tacit and explicit knowledge, as well as endogenous and exogenous knowledge. He defined tacit knowledge ‘as non-verbalised, intuitive, and unarticulated information that exists in people’s thinking, conduct, and perception, and it evolves through social interactions’, and, by referring to Nonaka et al. (2006), defined explicit knowledge as ‘completely transmissible, easy to articulate, write down, and share’, that is, knowledge that can ‘be articulated in formal and systematic language and communicated in the form of data, scientific formulae, specifications, and manuals’. Endogenous knowledge is defined ‘as a process of social construction carried out by a community that interacts on the basis of a shared worldview, that is, symbolic representations, epistemology, norms and values, and practices’. Further, referring to several sources, Kassaye (2024) defined exogenous knowledge as:
An extensive base of non-traditional knowledge that local people derive from their interactions with non-local people and institutions; television and other modern media; formal schooling in numeracy and literacy; the adoption of Western scientific thinking; and exposure to foreign values, attitudes, and philosophies. (p. 2)
According to Kassaye (2024), IK is more of tacit and endogenous knowledge, not explicit and exogenous knowledge, hence it is not a formal knowledge system embedded in the school curriculum (McFarlane et al., 2002). In the SSA context, Mawere (2015) argues that indigenous communities have always found value in their own local forms of knowledge; however, conventional knowledge production from formal schools views IK as unscientific, illogical, anti-development, or ungodly. Mostly, those who undermine IK use examples of mythical narratives that are not representative of the vast societal and historical knowledge. Mawere (2015) used the term ‘Intangible Heritage’ and provided the role that IK ‘could and should play in the teaching/learning process in the various educational systems’ (p. 60): de-racialise African educational systems, promote innovative thinking as it provides the basis for problem-solving strategies for local communities, evaluate the effectiveness of conventional science and IK, motivate and generate interest in learners, teach language and instil a sense of self-consciousness and cultural identity, promote the dissemination of IK across cultures, promote the cultural dimension of development, and promote interpersonal relationships and reciprocal obligations. These are reflected in different kinds of literature.
Game-based learning (GBL)
Game-based learning (GBL) has received ample attention in the past few decades since it can contribute to students’ motivation, engagement, and academic performance (Eltahir et al., 2021; Ismaizam et al., 2022; Shohel et al., 2022), promote student confidence in mathematics (Ku et al., 2014; Plass et al., 2015), boost students’ higher-order thinking skills in mathematics (Anggoro et al., 2024), and has the potential to develop 21st century skills like critical thinking, decision-making, persistence, socialisation, leadership, self-confidence, and self-regulation (Applebaum, 2025; Nino & Evans, 2015; Qian & Clark, 2016). By investigating the effect of GBL developed based on the problem-solving method on students’ cognitive and affective aspects, Pratama and Setyaningrum (2018) obtained positive effects that can support and increase mathematics learning outcomes. Jan and Gaydos (2016) call for a paradigm shift in learning and an reorientation in conceptualising GBL. In general, in recent decades, there has been a surge in the integration of games with learning (Applebaum, 2025; Divjak & Tomić, 2011; Ismaizam et al., 2022; Shohel et al., 2022). Qian and Clark (2016) defined GBL as follows:
GBL describes an environment where game content and gameplay enhance knowledge and skills acquisition, and where game activities involve problem-solving spaces and challenges that provide players/learners with a sense of achievement. (p. 51)
According to them, GBL involves ‘designing learning activities so that game principles and characteristics are embedded within the learning activities themselves’. Plass et al. (2015) argue that to study or apply games as learning environments, multiple perspectives have to be taken into account. They provided design elements of games that facilitate learning by fostering learners’ engagement (cognitive, behavioural, affective, and sociocultural) with the subject matter through an integrated design framework of game-based and playful learning. GBL uses both digital games (games that are played on electronic devices such as computers, consoles, or mobile devices) and non-digital games (activities that don’t involve electronic devices, played indoors or outdoors and often encouraging social interaction) to foster active engagement, motivation, and critical thinking among students. Some examples of popular digital GBL apps are Kahoot, Quizlet, Duolingo, BrainPop, Minecraft (Education Edition), Prodigy Math, Classcraft, ScratchJr, and ClassDojo (Acacia University, 2025). GBL generally supports pedagogical principles such as individualisation, feedback, active learning, motivation, social interaction, scaffolding, transfer from a game context to a real context, and assessment (Eds. Miller & Batsaikhan, 2021; Pesare et al., 2016). Despite GBL’s positive impact on learning, researchers underscore the need for a balance between subject matter and gameplay to ensure effective learning outcomes (Ismaizam et al., 2022). Hence, GBL deserves ample space in mathematics education, as it enhances students’ motivation, engagement, confidence, and higher-order thinking, while also supporting the development of key 21st century skills and improving cognitive and affective learning outcomes.
Cultural game-based learning in mathematics
Playing is among the six activities identified by Bishop (1988), activities that are found in almost every culture (Tesfamicael et al., 2021). In general, traditional games can foster mathematical understanding and skills, as demonstrated by the works of Gök (2020) using a Turkish village game, Dewah and Van Wyk (2014) using the Zimbabwean game pada, and Tesfamicael and Farsani (2024) with the Gebeta game in the Ethiopian context. In these games, different mathematical content can be incorporated, including counting, number sense, geometry, statistics, and probability. Rezeki et al. (2021), aiming to connect culture and mathematics through Realistic Mathematics Education (RME), develop a learning tool in the form of a Student Activity Sheet and a learning implementation plan using games like Static, Long Galah, Guli, and Congkak, games adapted from the Malay culture. In Tesfamicael and Farsani’s study, one finds that counting, subitising, addition, subtraction, bundling (group) counting, strategic thinking, as well as algorithmic thinking are among the affordances of playing the simple version of the Gebeta game played by children aged 4 and 5. Bayeck (2017) analysed five traditional African board games using a game design schema framework and showed that such games can foster counting skills, number sense, arithmetic thinking (e.g. addition and division), as well as spatial, strategic, and tactical thinking. Nkopodi and Mosimege (2009) implemented the integration of the Morabaraba game which provides opportunity for learning mathematical concepts in connection with geometric shapes, ratio and proportion, symmetry, logical reasoning and counting. They reported that learners enjoy playing the game, which promotes spontaneous interaction among learners as they communicate their activities to fellow participants. Susanti et al. (2020), in their study of the Indonesian das-dasan game, asserted that designing culturally rich local games based on RME principles can support students’ mathematical strategic competence. Furthermore, Dewah and Van Wyk (2014) asserted that integrating cultural games into mathematics education can help combat mathematics anxiety and provide context for students to apply mathematical concepts in their daily lives. Jossan et al. (2021) asserted that culturally aware GBL design can further aid learning but in culturally diverse populations, GBL may only appeal to a subset of the population, demanding extra effort for inclusion. Given the cultural games Igisoro and Gebeta, this study builds on how an IK-embedded CGBL design, specifically using these games, fosters FL in the early ages of children in the teaching and learning of mathematics in Rwanda and Ethiopia.
Conceptual framework
Foundational learning refers to the essential skills and knowledge that form the basis for further education and personal development (Nietschke et al., 2024; UNESCO, 2023). Foundational learning is often emphasised in early education but is relevant throughout life, as it supports lifelong learning and adaptability in a rapidly changing world. Without strong foundational skills, students struggle to access higher-order content, engage with problem-solving, or benefit from innovative pedagogies such as GBL. Foundational learning encompasses a range of competencies, in light of 21st century skills2, including:
Literacy: The ability to read and write effectively, which is crucial for accessing information and communicating ideas.
Numeracy: The skills related to understanding and working with numbers, including basic arithmetic, measurement, and data interpretation.
Critical Thinking: The ability to analyse information, evaluate arguments, and make reasoned decisions.
Social and Emotional Skills: These include interpersonal skills, self-awareness, empathy, and the ability to work collaboratively with others.
Digital Literacy: Understanding how to use technology and digital tools effectively and responsibly (Froyd et al., 2000; Palmer, 2008; Scott, 2015).
These competencies are not merely preliminary skills; they form the structural framework that enables children to interpret, connect, and apply new knowledge throughout schooling (UNESCO, 2023). If studied well and incorporated systematically, IK can strengthen the FL of children. The tacit and endogenous knowledge aspect (Kassaye, 2024) of IK can facilitate the development of language, cultural, social, and interpersonal relationships, and reciprocal obligations (Mawere, 2015). Especially in the case of the CGBL, as players (learners) engage in the game with enhanced motivation, critical thinking, and strategic problem-solving, they could foster FL. In many games, players need to work together, enhancing collaboration, and individual players (learners) receive feedback from those who have a deeper understanding of the game, what Vygotsky (1978) refers to as the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) in a sociocultural setting. Within a given cultural game context, this MKO guidance helps strengthen the development of foundational competencies. Figure 1 illustrates the potential of designing IK-embedded CGBL experiences to enhance FL. Deliberate engagement of stakeholders is essential for realising the integration of IK in ways that genuinely support FL.
Design potential depicting the relationship of indigenous knowledge and foundational learning.
Research methods and design
This research is conducted via the interpretive paradigm, the qualitative research strategy, and specifically using an ethnographic research approach, where the researcher describes and interprets the shared and learned values, behaviours, beliefs, and language of a culture-sharing group (Bryman, 2018; Creswell & Poth, 2018). Hence, the researcher is engaged in extracting the shared values, experiences, and engagement with the Gebeta game in the Ethiopian context and the Igisoro game in Rwanda. Using the theoretical frameworks of IK, CGBL, and FL as lenses, and through fieldwork, primary interviews, observations, documents, and video recordings, the researcher aims to find answers to the research questions posed. Susanti et al. (2020) proposed three stages to design and implement local games-based mathematics learning to support students’ mathematical strategic competence: (1) the identification and analysis of the traditional game; (2) the design of learning activities based on RME; and (3) the implementation in the classroom at a specific grade level. This work emphasises the first stage and intends to proceed further with the other two stages using Gebeta and Igisoro for using CGBL to boost FL.
Data collection
Ethnography allows researchers to study cultures and social phenomena using several methods like immersive observation, interviews, field notes, audio and video data, and document analysis (Creswell & Poth, 2018; Nurani, 2008). The Ethiopian Cultural Sport Federation has documented around 191 cultural games from across the country. Of these, only 11 have been formally integrated into the national cultural sports programme. The Gebeta game is one of these selected games, and it exists in four different versions (Tesfamicael & Farsani, 2024). In addition, video data was collected at the head office of the cultural sports federation office, two young players competing while a referee is judging. Interviews were conducted with the referee as well as with the head of the federation. Furthermore, video data of young children playing a local version of Gebeta game was collected in Gonder, the north-western part of the country, evidencing the existence of the game in its natural and cultural setting. In Rwanda, observation and interview methods were used to collect data on Igisoro played by locals in a club in Kicukiro and among locals in Kimihurura. The players in both places were asked if we could record the video, without identifying them and they were willing to provide more information about the rules of the game, why they choose to apply the different strategies they used while playing the game and its cultural relevance in society. The researcher took notes as well as records of video episodes. Note that these board games are common across SSA countries, for example the board game is called Omweso in Uganda, Ayo in Nigeria, and in other SSA countries the game has different names.
Data analysis
Ethnographic research follows three types of data analysis, according to Creswell and Poth (2018): description, analysis, and interpretation of the culture-sharing group. The description of the games and the analysis and interpretation of the data are guided by the framework introduced in this work. As depicted in Figure 1, this framework helps us organise and structure the data analysis, as it is guided by theoretical frameworks in connection to IK, CGBL and FL to identify and analyse the potential of the two traditional games for learning. Some elements of comparative analysis are included to highlight the differences and similarities of the Gebeta and Igisoro games from Ethiopia and Rwanda.
Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Norwegian Center for Research Data (NSD), the Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research (SIKT) (No. 404960). The study was conducted by obtaining informed consent and ensuring confidentiality. The researchers obtained informed consent from the participants by providing information about the research process. Before collecting the data on Gebeta, permission to responsibly collect personal data was obtained from Norwegian Center for Research Data (NSD), and for the Igisoro game, the Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research (SIKT) in Norway via the research project Gebeta Game in Early Mathematics Education (GEME)3. The participating authorities and persons in Ethiopia were also duly informed, and efforts were made to minimise or avoid using personal data. For both games, the images used were carefully selected to ensure they did not harm the participants despite their consent to participate in the research. In addition, in the age of AI, it is ethically important to provide declarations regarding the use of AI. In this work, Copilot was used for brainstorming and proofreading purposes only, and not for generating the text.
ResultsCultural game-based learning and numeracy
Both Gebeta and Igisoro (see Figure 2) are played basically using counting. Gebeta has 12 holes (homes), six per player. At the start, each hole (home) holds four seeds (stones or pebbles), a total of 24 seeds (6 × 4) for each player. In the case of Igisoro, the board consists of 32 homes, with each player allocated 16. At the start of the game, each player has 32 seeds (cows in the local context), that is 4 times 8. The seeds are placed first in the eight homes for each player. Hence the game involves 64 seeds. During play, the players engage in one-to-one correspondence counting, subitising, group counting, addition, subtraction, and strategic thinking as they decide where to begin and end their moves in an effort to optimise their play and win the game (Tesfamicael & Farsani, 2024). Hence, these activities can boost the numeracy skills of the players (learners). In their study, Oliver Thiel et al. (2024) implemented the Gebeta game in a Norwegian kindergarten setting and reported that the game has strong potential to enhance children’s early numeracy development.
Gebeta in Ethiopia and Igisoro in Rwanda: (a) two young players playing official cultural sports game in Ethiopia; (b) children between the ages of 6 years and 13 years playing a local version of Gebeta as others are watching; (c) two friends playing Igisoro in a club at Kicukiro in Kigali, Rwanda; (d) two locals playing Igisoro in Kimihurura, in Kigali, Rwanda.
Cultural game-based learning and social and emotional skills
For starters, these games are played in a social setting. For example, Figure 2b, Figure 2c and Figure 2d happened in the natural settings; in fact, Figure 2c happened without the researcher’s pre-intervention, while Figure 2a was arranged by the officials who run the cultural sports in the country. The two friends in Figure 2c reflected the following:
Igisoro is played as means to discuss social issues. The players are engaged in discussing their personal affair, their personal and others social issues and hence it is not only game, but it is a setting for deeper conversation. (Field notes, 07 November 2024)
One of the players, who works at a college, reflected on his experience with the game: ‘I used to play this game with my father when I was 7 years old. Now, I am playing it with my child, who is almost 3’, showing the researcher a picture of himself and his child playing the game (field notes, 07 November 2024). However, he did not grant permission for the photo to be used in this study. The player also noted that the game can foster interpersonal skills, self-awareness, empathy, and collaboration among its players.
Cultural game-based learning and critical thinking
These two cultural board games demand players to analyse the information available in each step and make decisions that will benefit them in the short and long run. Tesfamicael and Farsani (2024) presented two examples of strategies a player could take to win a Gebeta game after the opponent played. Figure 3 shows player number 2’s strategies to start at different homes, given as strategy i and strategy j, and the final results after each strategy was chosen in a local version of Gebeta played in Gondar. The strategies resulted in winning different numbers of home. To win the Igisoro game, a player must think carefully and strategise in ways that prevent the opponent from being able to move their seeds. Given the game has 32 homes and 64 seeds (cows), it is more cognitively demanding than the Gebeta game described in this work.
Simulation of second player’s strategies after the first player played the first round of the Gebeta game played in Gondar, Ethiopia.
Cultural game-based learning and literacy
Both games are situated in the local contexts using local languages. The holes in the Gondar version of Gebeta are referred to as homes. One home holds four seeds. Once you collect four seeds in each hole, you have made one home. In Igisoro, the players reflected that the seeds are cows. Players conceptualise the seeds as cows which have a significant meaning in society. In addition, as players justify and defend their moves, they use language to communicate to their opponents. When the two players in Figure 2c played, the following discourse happened (field notes, 07 November 2024):
Player 1: You’ve managed to restrict my moves now [pointing to the few scattered seeds on his side].
Player 2: You played your best moves, just accept it.
Researcher: What just happened? [He still does not know the strategies used to win the game.]
Player 1: While I was explaining the rules and steps to you, he used that opportunity to make good moves, and now he is about to win.
Researcher: How did you lose it?
Player 1: To win the Igisoro game, you either need to capture all your opponent’s seeds or leave them with no possible moves. Now you see these seeds … they can’t help me gain anything …
Such dialogue during the game supports oral language development, reflective thinking, and culturally meaningful communication. Explaining mathematical reasoning verbally using their mother tongue helps students articulate their thought processes and enhances understanding. As players (learners) play these culturally available games, they can also enhance their language competency. In fact, recent studies show how language shapes mathematical activities within social contexts, and multilingual environments (Morgan et al., 2014; Ed. Moschkovich, 2010).
Cultural game-based learning and digital literacy
Today, Igisoro is also available in virtual formats. There is an Igisoro application (app) that one can download easily and play with a friend or even the robot. So far there is no digital version of the Gebeta game presented in this work; however, other versions of the game called Mancala (Suharti et al., 2025) or Kalah are available digitally (Pekař et al. 2020). Furthermore, Tesfamicael and Farsani (2024) argue that the game can be programmed using Block programming tools like scratch for kids to engage in computational thinking at a higher level, and the same can be done for Igisoro. Hence, both these cultural games can also contribute to the digital literacy of learners to some extent. In general, GBL has emerged as an effective pedagogical approach enhancing digital literacy and cultural understanding (Chen, 2024; Shohel et al., 2022).
Discussion
The research question considered in this work is: how can Igisoro and Gebeta foster FL in the early ages of children in the teaching and learning of mathematics in Rwanda and Ethiopia? As shown in the findings, IK supports FL through language and discourse, social interaction, early numeracy embedded in cultural games, strategic and reflective thinking, motivation and identity, as well as culturally relevant contexts. These are all components of FL, making IK a valid conceptual framework for strengthening early mathematics learning. Using the frameworks for competencies of FL, Igisoro and Gebeta, as existing IK situated in the cultural and social contexts of Rwanda and Ethiopia, have the potential to enhance FL in terms of contributing to competencies like numeracy, social and emotional skills, critical thinking, literacy, and digital literacy. These board games and their variants are common across SSA countries, and hence the results can be extended to other board games in other countries in the region. The challenge is that these are not yet embedded in the curriculum and instruction for boosting the teaching and learning of mathematics (Kassaye, 2024; Tesfamicael & Farsani, 2024; McFarlane et al., 2002). Hence, these games exist as tacit and endogenous knowledge (Kassaye, 2024), demanding considerable and deliberate work to make it explicit and exogenous knowledge available in the school settings. As an existing body of knowledge in these countries, CGBL, Igisoro and Gebeta can promote the enhancement of knowledge, problem-solving skills, and increased motivation as players enjoy playing the games (Pratama & Setyaningrum, 2018; Qian & Clark, 2016). As observed in both Rwanda and Ethiopia, the MKO in the game scaffolds the experience for others, including children at an early age before starting school. One of the players at a club in Kicukiro, Kigali, Rwanda, claimed he used to play it as a child at around age 7 years with his father, and he is trying to engage his almost 3-year-old child in playing Igisoro. In fact, the researcher himself has experience playing Gebeta (Tesfamicael & Farsani, 2024) before starting primary school. As demonstrated by many researchers, traditional games can foster learning and hence FL (Dewah & Van Wyk, 2014; Gök, 2020; Nkopodi & Mosimege, 2009; Susanti et al., 2020).
Conclusion
To address the learning poverty and learning crisis as envisioned by GCFL and other stakeholders (GCFL, 2022; UNESCO, 2023), particularly in SSA countries, one approach could be engaging learners with cultural games that are available at a low cost, and which are rich in context so as to boost FL (Dewah & Van Wyk, 2014; Mawere, 2015; Susanti et al., 2020; Tesfamicael & Farsani, 2024). Mawere (2015) claimed that such knowledge can only be part of formal schooling if a series of measures are taken. The three-stage strategies of Susanti et al. (2020) to integrate IK in general, and cultural games specifically, in formal schools are helpful. In this work, at this stage, identifying cultural games that have the potential for teaching and learning mathematics has been the focus. In the next stage, the design of learning activities and their implementation in the classroom at a specific grade level will be the future work when it comes to making Gebeta and Igisoro explicit and exogenous knowledge available for learners in a formal school setting. Some work has started using the simplest version of Gebeta from Gondar in kindergartens in Norway (Oliver Thiel et al., 2024). This work could have benefited from a comprehensive study of the types of board games across SSA countries. Further, to our knowledge, integrating IK and cultural games into CGBL to enhance FL has received very limited attention and investment across SSA and globally, with only a few documented efforts (Dewah & Van Wyk, 2014; Gök, 2020; Nkopodi & Mosimege, 2009; Rezeki et al., 2021; Tesfamicael & Farsani, 2024). Therefore, this research recommends that education stakeholders prioritise systematic integration, development, and scaling of culturally grounded games, such as Igisoro and Gebeta, into early mathematics instruction as a means to strengthen FL through culturally meaningful and engaging learning experiences.
AcknowledgementsCompeting interests
The author declares that no financial or personal relationships inappropriately influenced the writing of this article.
CRediT authorship contribution
Solomon A. Tesfamicael: Conceptualisation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Visualisation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. The author confirms that this work is entirely their own, has reviewed the article, approved the final version for submission and publication, and takes full responsibility for the integrity of its findings.
Data availability
The author declares that all data that support this research article and findings are available in the article and its references.
Disclaimer
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How to cite this article: Tesfamicael, S.A. (2026). Culturally relevant game-based mathematics learning for enhancing foundational learning in sub-Saharan Africa. Pythagoras, 47(1), a880. https://doi.org/10.4102/pythagoras.v47i1.880